Monday, September 30, 2019
Diversity in classroom
My first field experiment was very necessary for me to observe the ways of a successful teacher. It contributed to me learning how to deal with diversity, classroom control, and accommodation for different learning styles. In my field experiment, I focused on diversity and how it plays a huge part in how the students interact and learn within the classroom. Diversity simply put, is to have variety or differences inside of a group. Diversity in the classroom may include: exceptionalities, culture, language, learning style and gender.Different types of diversities in a classroom can if not recognized, and accommodated for hinder the learning nvironment. As a successful teacher, it is necessary to demonstrate an understanding for diversity and to have the goal of accommodating for all students. I observed Dr. Andrew Bensons english classes to see what role diversity played in classroom setting. As the students entered the classroom no student seemed to stand out from the next student. G ender was the first sign of diversity I noticed in the students.They sat in a group setting and I noticed the males sat together and the females did the same. Dr. Benson did a great Job of using the entire area of the room while teaching his students. He continued to walk around to each table interacting with each group of students which I noticed kept there attention. The objective of this class was to learn abbreviations. Classroom participation was key to this class period. Students were given the chance to express there thoughts which motivated them to understand the objective. This class used a heterogeneous type teaching method.All student from different backgrounds, gender, ethnicity, and culture learned together in a mutually beneficial environment. One example I saw of accommodation was when a student who had bad eye siht was allowed to come tand in front the class and work the problem on the board. This was an amazing method because it allowed the student to participate in what the other students were learning while making him feel special and not weird. The student flourished because the attention was not given to the exceptionality but instead, toward the question the student answered on the board.Dr. Benson did a great Job of showing empathetic acceptance to each student which allowed for open discussions without students feeling embarrassed or shy. When I spoke to Dr. Benson he informed me that the only diversity that may hinder the student in his classroom was gender. He mentioned that students tended to get distracted from being around the opposite sex. The way he controlled this was to have the girls sit together and have the boys sit together. I saw nothing wrong with this method because the students seemed to feel comfortable in their areas.I spoke to Dr. Benson on how he promoted positive social interaction between student and he mentioned that he kept an atmosphere of fun and he tried his best to keep the students busy. Even when the class room seemed to me as loud and unfocused, Dr. Benson stayed in control and realized that the classroom volumes will fluctuate within the period. When he needed them to quiet down he Just raised his hand and gained the attention of the students. Dr. Benson's class seemed to flourish with the blooms taxonomy learning method.I noticed how he took them from the first level of knowledge down to evaluation in the subject ot grammar. He allowed them to see now grammar changes the meaning ot a sentence, which gave it value in the eyes of he students. Some students needed more assistance than others but that was okay because that Just means the student need more individual attention. The students who understood the material a little better ere given a chance to go ahead so that while Dr. Benson worked with other students so that theses students were not held up.I noticed that about three students began to get frustrated when they could not grasp the same understanding the other student did. I watched as Dr. Benson encouraged them by creating a more intimate learning environment by sitting close to the student while he/she attempted to understand the material. I could barely hear what was being said but body language showed that the student was frustrated and that Dr. Benson understood why and how to help accommodate the student. Once he took time with one student e allowed them to continue on their own, while he moved to the next student.Some good dispositions that I noticed Dr. Benson had were humility, confidence, patients, and openness. These dispositions served as a way to make the students comfortable with the diversity in the classroom. No student felt out of place and I believed it was because they felt accepted and not Judged. They were taught when they got something wrong and rewarded with cookies when they were correct. One thing I appreciated was how in on part of the class the students were given the chance to correct their peer class work which according to Dr. Benson helped them retain the information better.The course text supports the assumption that all students can learn. I agree completely with the text and know that it is important that students have the opportunity to learn in a way that best fit them. Teachers that have one way of teaching tend to neglect the students that don't flourish in that particular style. Also I know that dispositions of the teacher can either encourage student learning or hinder it. Students tend to do better in subjects they enjoy and enjoy the subject if they are attracted to the disposition of that teacher of the subject.
Sunday, September 29, 2019
The atmosphere in which the modern business organization
The atmosphere in which the modern business organization operates is something which can change in no time at all. In comparing Fortune Magazine’s â€Å"Most Admired Companies†from 2007, and in retrospect, 1987, some interesting facts emerge. First, the two lists are compared as follows: 2007                                                1987 1. General Electric                                            General Motors 2. Starbucks                                                       Exxon 3. Toyota Motor                                                Ford 4. Berkshire Hathaway                                      IBM 5. Southwest Airlines                                        Mobil 6. FedEx                                                            General Electric 7. Apple                                                             ATT 8. Google                                                           Texaco 9. Johnson & Johnson                                        Dupont 10 . Proctor & Gamble                                        Chevron These two lists are characterized by a few common elements; first, the issue of profitability is something that is universal in the lists, even thought they are separated by a decade of time. The companies that are in the lists, upon further research, are all companies which, while not constant, have been profitable overall. In fact, some of these companies, such as Ford and Exxon, have fallen upon hard times occasionally, and their positive position in the mind of the public has allowed them to recover from some major catastrophes, such as Ford’s plant closings and Exxon’s Valdez disaster, which almost destroyed the company. Interestingly, in the 2007 list, a new type of company, Starbuck’s appears. It can be said that the company is different because much of what they sell is image, and not the tangibles offered by automotive manufacturers as a quick example. How much of the evaluation is dominated by the profitability of the company? In the present day evaluations, profitability of the company, of course is a key element as it has always been; however, the companies of today are evaluated more so on net income after taxes as a percentage of sales for a few key reasons. First, some of the companies that are rated as top companies are those which offer non-durable products such as Starbuck’s, for which a measure such as return on assets is not the best evaluative tool. How many of these companies currently on the ‘Most Admired' list also appear on Fortune’s current list of â€Å"The 100 Best Companies to Work For†? As a matter of fact, three of the companies currently on the ‘Most Admired’ list also appear on Fortune’s current list of ‘The 100 Best Companies to Work For’; specifically, the companies are Google, Johnson & Johnson and Starbucks. Based on this finding, there are several possible theories for the relationship between companies being ranked on both lists simultaneously. Obviously, companies that are among the best to work for will generate a level of admiration. Moreover, it is also likely that companies that are so admired will attract the kinds of talented and qualified people as employees who would be likely to speak well of companies. Conversely, companies that are not good to work for are unlikely to be admired. Conclusion In conclusion, what can be seen in comparing popular companies from present and past is that some firms have great longevity, some do not, but all achieve greatness at one time or another.
Saturday, September 28, 2019
Karl Marx & Max Weber on Social Stratification
We cannot deny the existence of social structures or system by which people are categorized or ranked in a hierarchy. This people categorization is otherwise known as social stratification. It is a universal characteristic of society that persists over generations. It is a social structure by which social issues and organizational problems arise.In a society, groups of people share a similar social status, and this is known as social class. Over the years, the importance and definition of membership in any social class evolve and change between societies. Societies have become all the more dynamic because of technological advances, industrialization, and now, globalization.Contemporary societies stratify into a hierarchical system based on economic status, income or wealth, and this is known as socioeconomic class. In the past, societies have an upper class and a lower class. Those in the upper class are deemed to be the very wealthy and powerful, while those from the lower c lass are the poor and the weak.Considering social changes and developments in the twentieth century, new groups called the middle class and working class in urban societies emerged. Members of the middle class are the educated, highly paid professionals like doctors, accountants, scientists, and lawyers. They nonetheless work for or render services for the upper class. Much like the working class, they receive their wages, only they earn above the minimum wage because of the market value of their professions and skills. Their market value increases as they increase their skills and competencies. They have the chance to increase their income and eventually move up the social ladder (Krieken, et al, 2001, p. 62).Meanwhile, those who belong to the working class are the trades people, factory laborers, drivers, and similar workers who has some skills training, which they use to earn a living. Although they may be considered financially stable due to regular income, they still belong to the lower class for the reason that they earn only slightly above the minimum wage.Other members of the lower class are the underemployed, unemployed, welfare beneficiaries, homeless, and everyone else who live below the poverty line. Due to lack of education and skills, their opportunities are simply limited (McGregor, 1997, p. 261).Social stratification is already an intrinsic structure of any society, and if it has its benefits and function in a society, which some scholars believe, that is reward and merit for productivity. People are rewarded for their productive efforts and skills. When we speak of reward, it does not only mean economic reward. Remember that people are also rewarded with (social) honor and this is known as social status.Karl Max and Max Weber were distinguished theorists whose works have become the basic but significant frameworks of sociology. Their concepts prove to be relevant until today. They have provided a rich reservoir of perspectives, which help contemporary social thinkers and learners, understand social stratification, classes and status groups. They both laid the groundwork for understanding social conflict and inequality in modern society such that whenever issues of social inequality arise, whether it is on the basis of social class, race, ethnicity, gender, and other dimensions, all these are explored and studied in the context of sociological traditions derived from their works. Karl Marx’ Concept of Class Karl Marx defined class in terms of the extent to which a person or social group has the capacity to control the means of production. Those of the same social class have a common relationship to the means of production. Marx believed that the base of inequality among individuals in modern societies is economy (Sanghara).Marx believed that classes are constituted by the relationship of groupings of individuals to property ownership in the means of production. In this regard, a few own properties and capita l while others do not, many work while only a few live off the fruits of those workers. Class societies have been built around a line of demarcation between two antagonistic classes, one dominant and the other subordinate (Giddens, 1971, p. 37).Marx’ view of social stratification stemmed from his observations of early industrialization in Europe during the late part of the 19th century. He saw the existence of two major classes –the ruling class (capitalists) and the working class, or otherwise known as the bourgeois and proletariat. The capitalists were viewed as such because of their ownership of the means of production, as well as the power this creates – economically and even politically (Krieken, et al, 2001, p. 55).In a capitalist system, the ruling class, with their economic resources, lives from the productivity of the working class, and this is when social divisions and conflicts arise. Unlike in tribal, rural or simple societies where people live by hu nting (or gathering), people can not be categorized differently, because no one has more than others do.Marx believed that the conflict between the bourgeois (capitalists) who happen to control production, and the proletariat who actually produce the goods or render services in a society, on the basis of capitalism.In capitalism, control over production evokes control over the laborers, and this set-up is likely to result in exploitation of workers by the capitalists. With the craving of capitalists themselves to compete with fellow capitalists, and the greediness for more material gains, Marx predicted that in a society where the capitalist system prevails, financial resources of the few but wealthy capitalists would flourish. At the same time, the income disparity between the poor and the rich would continue. Meanwhile, as capitalists continue to exploit workers, the workers would remain victims of economic crises.The social classes that originated from the capitalist system that Marx knew during his time still holds true today, only, the bourgeois class has become fragmented over the last century due to the emergence of the so-called stockholders. Likewise, the proletariat has been changed significantly by the â€Å"white-collar revolution.†Decades ago, work involved mostly manual labor, or otherwise known as â€Å"blue-collar†occupations. â€Å"White-collar†occupations involve mostly mental or non-manual skills. However, the shared social structure of earning wages makes both proletariats during Marx’ time, and today’s educated but average office workers, a â€Å"working class.†Today, workers’ conditions have significantly improved through the efforts of labor organizations, and, because of expanded legal rights and protection of workers. While exploitation of workers still happen, and a small proportion of powerful people control the vast majority of wealth in our society, Marx’ perspectives will continue to prove valuable and significant in our understanding of social conflicts that arise from social stratification.Max Weber’s Social StratificationMax Weber expressed a two-fold classification of social stratification, with social class, status groups as distinct concepts. He believed that, the economic order was of great importance in determining the precise position of different communities, but nonetheless, he did not discount the important role of religion, ideas, status, and bureaucracy (Hadden, 1997, p. 126).Weber defined class as the disproportionate distribution of economic rewards, and the status group as the disproportionate distribution of social honor (Krieken, et al, 2001, p.58). Class position is determined by one’s market value. This market value is founded by education, talent, acquired skills and competencies. He had no notion of â€Å"surplus value,†unlike Marx. Social class is simply an aggregate of people with similar work or profess ional opportunities, and their position would depend on the choices they made out of these opportunities.Unlike social class, status groups have similar qualities like groups. They are influenced by how social honor is shared among the members of the group. Lifestyle is shared by those of the same social circle. Belonging to a status group may depend on kinship, education, and at the most extreme, through a caste system, which happens to be related to one’s culture. In a caste system, status is determined not only by law and convention, but also by religious sanction (Gane, 2005, p. 211).Contrary to Marx’ perception, Weber believed that status is more influential than economic condition. He introduced the concept of status groups as an additional social category to define one’s consumption pattern or lifestyle. If Marx focused on one’s position in the production assembly, Weber believed that status groups are actually communities held together by common l ifestyles and social esteem. Status groups share the same professions, views, as well as lifestyles. They do not just enjoy economic rewards, but social honor as well. With their professional achievement, comes social honor.Weber was concerned with individuality and generality (Ritzer, p. 114). For instance, he recognized the individuality of people – their talents, skills and competencies and, that people have a good chance to further their career and improve their standard of living by increasing their market value through education.Weber’s theory on social mobility (or movement in the class structures) is more promising. Unlike Marx’ idea of social class which imply that animosity between the bourgeois and proletariat will not end until the proletariat eventually overthrow the bourgeois.However, Weber’s concept of social mobility does not only mean an upward movement. The reverse may also happen and that is – moving down the social ladder. M oving up or down the social ladder will depend upon the life choices the person made, as well as opportunities he had. In this case, the middle class are the most predisposed as it is only an intermediary class. Just like how Marx argued, the middle class would be eventually absorbed into both the upper and lower class, as this is not sufficiently different for it to survive (as a social class) in the long run.ConclusionKarl Marx and Max Weber were two important personalities whose theories led to our understanding of social stratification, class and status groups. Marx provided an elaborate and very systematic concept of capitalism and capitalist development, and its effect in society. While Weber held other factors were also relevant in determining the future of our society such as religion, culture, ideas, values, meaning, social and personal action.Marx and Weber’s perspectives amazingly still hold true in today’s modern societies. In the â€Å"Communist M anifesto,†Marx and Engels remarked that â€Å"the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles†(Bottomore, 1983, p. 75). In any historical era, social classes were real and today, pressing economic conditions make social stratification and other structures all the more complex.Despite the fact that many work even harder to achieve more economic reward, many cannot move up the social ladder. â€Å"The class in its turn achieves an independent existence over against the individuals, so that the latter find their conditions of existence predestined, and hence have their position in life and their personal development assigned to them by their class, become subsumed under it†(Giddens and Held, p. 20)To be in the middle of the ladder, and stay there is such a long tedious struggle. Opportunities come, but sometimes, these elude them. In most modern societies in the world, many still live below the poverty line. But those who are bo rn in a wealthy or powerful family, knows just where they stand in the hierarchy system – and that is similar to that of their parents. Looking at how wealth is proportioned in today’s society, and how richer populations possess and continue to increase their wealth, Marx was right. The trend of widening disparity in wealth and social class between the rich and the poor will continue, until we brace ourselves as a social group to make a conscious and consolidated effort of reducing this gap.Weber believed, we can accomplish things which we do not even rationally or scientifically think we are capable of doing, â€Å"namely the subjective understanding of the action of the component individuals†(Weber, 1968, p. 15). In other words, man has innate capabilities and the power to make significant change in himself and in the society where he belongs.To illustrate his viewpoint and applying it in contemporary society – and it may already sound clichà ©, o ne way of reducing the gap between social classes is through education. Through education, we are able to set the social foundation for the next generations. It is the long route, but nonetheless, its impact has more lasting value.References:Bottomore, T (ed), 1983, A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, p. 75.Krieken, R, et al, 2001, Sociology Themes and Perspectives, 2nd edition, Longman, Melbourne, pp. 54-62.McGregor, C, 1997, Class in Australia, Penguin Books, Victoria, pp. 261.Gane, N, 2005, â€Å"Max Weber as a Social Theorist,†European Journal of Social Theory, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 211-226 (2005)Giddens, A, 1971, Capitalism and Modern Social Theory: An Analysis of the Writings of Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 17.Giddens, A and Held, D, 1982, Classes, Power, and Conflict: Classical and Contemporary Debates, Berkeley, University of California Press, p. 20.Hadden, R, 1997, Sociological Theory: An Introduction to the Classical Tradition, Peterborough, Ontario, Broadview Press, p. 126.Ritzer, G, 1992, Sociological Theory, 3rd edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, p. 114.Sanghara, S, The Concept of Social Inequality, 3 March 2008, http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ph_macionis_sociology_5/23/6031/1544046.cw/index.htmlWeber, M, 1968, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, New York, Bedminster Press, p. 15.
Friday, September 27, 2019
California Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
California Culture - Essay Example Surrounding of Frances (Gidget) and Mary Ann varies and it has impacted their psychology, behavioral patterns and life priorities. Gidget is a pretty sixteen-years-old girl, who has never faces serious difficulties and is absolutely inexperienced in love. Gidget is distinguished among her female friends and helpmates, who are keen on male hunting. This imaginary heroine embodied a real life prototype – Kohner’s daughter Kathy Kohner-Zuckerman. The writer described and analyzed his daughter’s summer, spent on the beach of Malibu. The Lawrences can be regarded as an example of usual middle-class American family of 1950th; they are united, happy and self-sufficient. Mary Ann is older than Francie and seems to be more experienced in life. She decided to live her native Cleveland and find a permanent job in San Francisco. On her arrival she rented an apartment at 28 Barbara Lane and suddenly came across socio-cultural diversity and dynamic urban life. Thus, two worlds of Francie and Mary Ann create a sharp contrast between Californian cultural layers. The author placed Frances in sea and sand romance and separated her from temptations and noise of Los Angeles. Major part of the plot developed on the beach in hot Californian summer. To spend summer, vacations or at least weekend in Malibu became popular and fashionable. â€Å"The story, set on the beaches of Malibu, told of the adventures of a young American girl and a group of surfers. The surf-star myth was under way, and, while late-1960s students were up in arms, a whole generation of surfing enthusiasts was crazy to brave the waves.†(Augustin 1998) Thus, story about Gidget and her adventures laid foundation of a new surfing trend in Californian sub-culture. Film with the same name with Sandra Dee made surfing and summer holidays in Malibu or any other beaches of California especially popular.
Thursday, September 26, 2019
EU Constitutional Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words
EU Constitutional Law - Essay Example The frustration with integration theories was due to, first, the scope of the study of integration, second, the participants who were effectively engendering integration and third, the process or mechanism of integration. This approach indicated the importance of certain factors, which had been omitted in the initial assessment. Despite, rejection by the intergovernmental conference, the proposed introduction showed that the Convention's aim was to vitalize the idea of democracy. The democratic constitution of the European Communities was considered unimportant and unnecessary by many scholars who felt that an internal market endorsed individual freedom1. In spite of this, the EU's transformation from purely economic to political cooperation has necessitated such thinking. The Amsterdam Treaty2 has incorporated democracy as a fundamental value into the foundational treaties3. Article 2 of the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe4 (CT) lists democracy as a central value of the Union and Articles 1- 47 buttresses this notion under the title "The Democratic Life of the Union" as representative5 and participatory6 democracy. Although, the necessity of democratic governance is universally recognized its discourse, premises and content are frequently discussed7. The holistic approach is based on society and the assumption that there exists a common good which differs from the aggregate of all individual interests. The subject of legitimacy in the individualist position refers to the individual and hence, the aim of public policy is to promote individual interests. A state-centered collectivist approach deters further integration and limits decision-making to the national parliaments8. Hence, at the European level, the Council of Ministers have to play a vital role and from an individualistic perspective and the European Parliament, which represents the European citizenry is the main organ for obtaining democratic legitimacy9. Foundation. The holistic legitimacy concept justifies the state-centered democratic vision, which states that only national peoples are subjects of legitimacy. Since, minorities accept majority decisions only if the citizenry has a certain national homogeneity, legitimacy has to be derived from national parliaments. Hence, absence of a European demos is a hurdle to further integration. The legitimacy of the state-centered, collectivist approach is dubious as no relationship exists between society and the nation state10, which is independent of a national or homogenous group11 or a cultural, religious or social consensus. Constitutional Treaty and Legitimacy. Article 2 CT lists dignity and individual liberty in the Union's fundamental values with the individualistic concept of democracy being adopted theoretically and it accords center stage to the individual in the European legal order, which is further strengthened by the guarantee of equality prescribed in Articles 2 and 45 CT. These provisions grant European citizens equal rights, rendering mediation of citizen's rights by a state or nation unnecessary. Therefore, the guarantee of liberty and equality exemplify that the European Constitution is based on an individualistic concept of democracy12. Article 1 (1) CT, lists the will of the member states to build a common future beneath
Corporate social responsibility Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
Corporate social responsibility - Essay Example al, 2005). Activities of Corporately Socially Responsible (CSR) Firms: Coca cola international claims itself as a socially responsible multinational firm. It is currently operating in dozens of countries while honoring its commitment of being CSR efficient. As a sure sign of success not only has it been able to capture and sustain a remarkable 49% of market share in beverage market around the world , rather the increasing revenues have consistently shown a better picture throughout (Cokecsr, 2011). Following are the activities claimed by coca cola as their Corporate Social Responsibilities. Energy Efficiency and Climate Concerns: The Company claims at reducing the carbon emissions throughout the value chain and making their processes more energy efficient (cokecsr, 2011). Emissions of harmful materials are carefully managed. Water Stewardship: Water consumption for running the operations is strictly need based; there is no excessive usage or wastage of drinking water. Water sustainab ility is ensured during operations at coke plants; what is consumed is returned to the environment (cokecsr, 2011). ... Community, Health and Employee Safety: The corporate makes significant investments to ensure a protected community, improved health and employee welfare; enabling the company to sustain its remarkable position as a world leader in beverage market (cokecsr, 2011). Factors to Enhance CSR Image: Companies employ different tactics to improve their CSR image in the eyes of their consumers, it is because they are highly concerned with the social needs of their consumers. The augmented exposure of customers to environment and social issues and crisis is a huge potential threat for large companies. To resolve these supposed threats from customers, large companies take specific initiatives. The basic purpose is to create a higher degree of customer satisfaction. If the society is growing, the environment is protected and people are healthy then it is quite certain that the customers will be satisfied. Media marketing or advertisements are the main aid to generalize the community about corpora te social responsibilities. The investments which a company makes in a community are the ones that really reap the benefits for the company in the longer run. It may include educational investments, health care initiatives and eliminating social evils from the society (Armstrong, 1977). Every company, that employs a CSR policy, publishes an annual report which covers the yearly operations, initiatives and achievements of the company (ckecsr, 2011). This coverage provides a complete picture of how the firm’s projects have turned out. For instance, if investments have been made in long term projects which are beneficial for the firm’s associations; this will create
Wednesday, September 25, 2019
Critically analyse approaches to market segmentation that can be Essay
Critically analyse approaches to market segmentation that can be applied to the fashion retail sector - Essay Example Besides, clothing for every season is being produced to suit every market and every generation. This enhances the importance of market segmentation in the fashion retail sector. This essay will critically analyze the approaches that can be applied to the retail fashion sector. The fashion retail industry in UK is turbulent as the fashion conscious consumers expect and thrive for constant change. This requires proper market segmentation so that retailers are in a position to satisfy individual customer needs. The fashion retail market is split into number of segments – luxury, high street and supermarket/out-of-town discounter (Bruce & Daly, 2006). With the supermarkets having entered the clothing sector, the fashion retail has been redefined. It enables the time-starved consumers to purchase cheap clothing instead of visiting high street. Different retailers adopt a different segmentation strategy depending on the market and the products they have on offer. Segmentation according to Bond and Morris (2003) can either be attitudinal or latent class segmentation. Consumers have different attitudes and these lead to different behavior but this does not apply to the retail fashion sector where customer preferences change by the season. Results on the basis of attitudinal segmentation have been very flat. Latent class segmentation differentiates people on the basis of the degree of their perception of brand, price promotion, sales personnel and product line. Segmenting on this basis gives a better cluster solution which is more robust than based on attitudes. Market positioning strategies are developed by retailers based on product, price and service provision. Store images assist the retailers in determining the positioning strategies (Birtwistle, Clarke & Freathy, 1998). The retailers project an image which matches the targeted customers’ self-image world, which increases customer loyalty. The store image is linked to customer
Tuesday, September 24, 2019
Family Business Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 11000 words
Family Business - Research Paper Example This condition, in turn, has transformed contemporary organisations. Organisations pursue competencies that make firms globally competitive. Companies’ pursuit of competencies is no longer just limited to financial and physical capital, but it also includes human capital. This move is necessary to create added value to their services or products, attract new customers, and retain loyal clients (Nordhaug, 1993; Westhead & Matlay, 2006). However, despite the fast phase changes in the modern period, the significant and integral role of the family in the economic activities of the society remains undeterred (Aldrich & Cliff, 2003). Of the several facets manifesting the integral role of the family in the society, the influence of family on business, in terms of firm creation and management, is no longer limited to small businesses, but it also consists of large corporations with families holding majority shares (Steier, Chrisman & Chua, 2004). This scenario is observed not only in the United States and in Europe, but it is also an event that has become perceptible in China, Japan and other Asian countries (Steier et al., 2004). As such, it can be claimed that there is a pervasive participation of families in the establishment and management of economic institutions that redefines the role of families in economic organisations and activities as well as in organisational life (Aldrich & Cliff, 2003; Morck & Nakamura, 2003; Steier et al., 2004). In this context, family owned business (FOB), just like non-family owned business, requires effective governance for the firm to achieve continued growth and success. Implementation of policies, strategies and management by family founders/owners are geared towards attaining efficient and effective governance that will sustain and maintain the family corporation (Angus, 2005). Effective FOB governance is essential not only in handling organisational issues and in wealth management of the FOB, but it is also necessary in handling conflicts arising from family relations involve in the business (Moore& Juenemann, 2008). In this condition, understanding governance in family owned business becomes one of the essential factors in determining FOB’s sustainability, growth and success in the era of globalisation. Background of the Study Family owned businesses play a crucial role in economic activities across the globe (Steier et al, 2004). Families creating and managing their own businesses have become pervasive and it is clearly manifest in many developing countries (Ramachandra & Merisetty, 2009). However, as economic institutions, FOBs require effective governance that will ensure not only their continued existence in the market, but can also guarantee the firm’
Monday, September 23, 2019
Characteristics of Business Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 4
Characteristics of Business Leadership - Essay Example This earned him a reputation as the greatest business leader giving him honor throughout the world. This Business leader’s primary line of business is electronics. The various companies he has established deals with creation of computers, computer platform, and computer soft ware (Lussier & Achua 2009). This shows that Steve Jobs had a passion for computers. He is also remembered for the major innovation in the computer industry that his first company Apple has innovated under his leadership. We do not trace another line of business that Steve Jobs lead, but that is not to conclude that his leadership style could not have been applied in another field. This is just because of his love for electronics that he had developed since his childhood. Steve Job and his friend Steve Wozniak started by setting up shops in 1976 where they assembling computers. They developed this shop to a company whose work was making computers and called this company Apple computers. On the same year when the company was established it created its first machine which Jobs called it apple I. This was just a beginning as a year later the company would invent its second garget, Apple II which would define the PC era and later, the Macintosh which would define a new direction for the computer industry (Lussier & Achua, 2009). Apple Computers is not the only business that Steve Jobs established. After establishing Apple Jobs went ahead to establish another company whose work was to create computer animated films. He called this company Pixar technologies. Under his leadership, this company also experienced tremendous growth in its area of operation thus making him more famous. He later established another company for developing computer platforms and called it NeXT when he was sacked from being the CEO of Apple and became the CEO. This company was specializing in higher education and business
Sunday, September 22, 2019
Mayella Violet Ewell Essay Example for Free
Mayella Violet Ewell Essay Mayella Violet Ewell is Tom Robinsons 19-and-a-half-year-old accuser and the eldest daughter of Bob Ewell; she has to take care of her siblings (such as Burris Ewell) due to Bob Ewells alcoholism. Before the trial, Mayella is noted for growing red geraniums outside her otherwise dirty home. Due to her familys living situation, Mayella has no opportunity for human contact or love, and she eventually gets so desperate that she attempts to seduce a black man, Tom Robinson. Her father sees this through a window, and in punishment he beats her. Ewell then finds the sheriff, Heck Tate, and tells him that his daughter has been raped and beaten by Tom. At the trial, Atticus proves that it was her father who beat her by pointing out that the bruises are on the right side of her face only. This is important because Toms left hand is mangled and useless, while Bob Ewell is left handed. When Atticus Finch asks her if she has any friends, she becomes confused because she does not know what a friend is. During her testimony, she is confused by Atticus polite speech and thinks that his use of Miss Mayella is meant to mock her. By testifying against Tom Robinson, Mayella is trying to destroy the evidence suggesting that she had attempted to seduce him, and to do what her father wants her to do so that he wont hurt her  to eliminate her own guilt and fear of breaking a rigid and time-honored code. Mayella is played by Collin Wilcox in the movie.
Saturday, September 21, 2019
The Low Involvement Product
The Low Involvement Product In the current easy we will described the high involvement product a good food, and the low involvement product a household cleaning product. The good food can be considered a high involvement product because it is extremely important to ensure that a person eats healthy food. When I choose the food, I am able to choose only after long and careful consideration what product will be the most essential. Important purchases require more time, attention and efforts. Low involvement product is a household cleaning product, because there is no need to pay a lot of attention to what I am buying. To the low involvement products there is not paid a lot of attention, because people know the specifics of what they have already bought and that the condition of the low involvement product is not so important. This product is not vital, as to buy it is a every month routine. As a rule, when a person considers buying the low involvement product, he does not pay a lot of attention to it, he just takes it and pays for it. For a person the low involvement product is not important or vital, it is just a basic need that does not require the additional attentions and a lot of time to think. The differences between the ways I went through the purchase decision processes for the two products. When choosing the high involvement product good food, I have devoted all my attention and knowledge to choose it. As a fact, when buying the good food, I was highly involved in the purchase, as there were significant differences between brands. I had to choose the food carefully, because I know that this product is vital for me and very important for my family. Spending extra time on choosing it, was worth it, because I was able to choose the newest product, see the best before date, see the quality and choose the best price among the different amounts of it. Choosing the good food is a complex task. When choosing the low involvement product- a household cleaning product, I have chosen it and did not think about outcome, as I was familiar with this product and decided to buy it, as I have been doing this for years. When visiting the supermarket, I have made a list of what I had to buy. With the help of the list, I was able not to forget about each thing I need, even if it is basic. Choosing the household cleaning product was easy, as I have done it for many times and I like its quality and price. All in all, low involvement products, as a rule, do not have complications or cause any problems. IT is easy to choose them and to buy them. Being the marketer of both of the two products, it will be essential to explain the understanding of the Model of Consumer Buying Behavior for the two products. Under the purchasing behavior (including buyer behavior, consumer behavior), it refers to the behavior of the buyer regarding the sale of goods. The behavior of the sale of goods, from the purchase planning, purchase negotiation, makes the purchase; to post-purchase behavior is highly variable. According to Marketing strategy (2010), the buying behavior among merchants that also do business with the solicitation of offers and / or long negotiations and possibly also in buying bodies, is connected, and sometimes differs significantly from the purchasing behavior of non-traders, be they government agencies, often on the basis of tenders to decide, or whether they are consumers with very different behavior patterns. More generally, however, characterizing the concept of consumer behavior is encompassing all the individual actions can be associated with the purchase or consumption of economic goods observed, according to Business plans and marketing strategy (2010). As a fact, the post purchase behavior is much more active of those, who purchased the high involvement goods. The behavior models are reflected in the purchasing of low involvement and high involvement goods. The first model, the stimulus-response model (RS model), comes from the early behaviorism, which is located in the black box model of psychology as a basis. It is greatly simplified in a direct link between a stimulus and the response, which is, therefore, a cause-effect relationship. This model was then extended in meaning by the Environmental neo behaviorists of psychological behavioral model, and the SOR paradigm for the human factor, the organism, according to Marketing strategy (2010). This particular extension is often expressed through the intervening variable. It is admitted that an individual and his personality through his many influences and environment, has been characterized. This was manifested in the individual environmental study, and must be targeted in order to be effective again ultimately affecting behavior. There are distinguished four classic types of purchasing behavior: extensive buying behavior, real purchasing decisions, cognitive participation and information needs are great, and the decision-making takes a long time; These are mostly high-quality, durable goods; habitual buying behavior. Habitual behavior, the search for alternatives is to be avoided, not responding to stimuli practically and this was included primarily to consumer goods; limited purchasing behavior; a limited selection of products, without favoritism; impulsive buying behavior; spontaneous affective reactions at the point of sale. In addition, a fifth special type of purchasing behavior is known: Variety-seeking consumer behavior this can be related to the high involvement goods. It is considered rare, because it has unclear transitions, because the change request often results in impulsive, so in some ways it is not real. This classification of purchasing behavior is not analogous transfer on the consumer as a whole. A decision maker could be forced by external circumstances, in a very short time to make choices, as can also happen in the case of purchasing high involvement goods, such as good food. The determinants of the consumers behavior have intrapersonal or psychological factors and interpersonal and social factors influencing the decisions. In case with the low involvement goods- household cleaning product it can be seen, that a person, having chosen the appropriate product thanks to the effective commercial and true results, does not want even think about any other product and spend his time of doing research in the low involvement products, as the particular household cleaning product meets all the requirements, according to Business plans and marketing strategy (2010). All in all, marketing influences the personal decisions a lot, as people who take into consideration the useful advertisements, in future choose the low involvement goods automatically. And considering the high involvement goods, in this case there will always be certain preferences and the commercials not always will be able to influence effectively on the choice of a customer. Some people can not be influenced by the marketing and promotion of the goods.
Friday, September 20, 2019
Liquefied Petroleum Gas Lpg Engineering Essay
Liquefied Petroleum Gas Lpg Engineering Essay Liquefied Petroleum Gas is an important source of energy for millions of people around the world. LPG consists mainly of gases at atmospheric temperature and pressure (propane and butane), which when subjected to modest pressure or refrigeration can liquefy. This makes it possible to transport and store as liquid in pressurized cylinders and containers, which must be safely and carefully handled. Definition: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) can be simply described as hydrocarbons that exist as vapours under ambient conditions of temperature and pressure, but can be liquefied by the application of moderate pressure. When gas is liquefied, the volume occupied by the vapour considerably decreases, thus the liquid formed requires less storage space. The material is therefore stored and distributed in the liquid phase in pressurized containers and systems and is finally allowed to return to the vapour phase at the point of eventual utilization. Sources of LPG: LPG as the name suggests, consists mainly of a mixture of hydrocarbons (Propane and Butane) with a little proportion of unsaturates (Propylene and Butylene). These hydrocarbons and unsaturates (LPG) can be produced through two main sources which are: Wet Natural Gas, which consists entirely of saturated hydrocarbons (Propane and Butane) and can be found in oil or gas fields, being removed as condensable products from natural gas and also extracts from crude oil during the stabilization process applied in order to reduce the vapour pressure prior to shipment; Refining process to remove impurities like moisture and sulphur compounds (hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans), which may lead to clogging of valves and corrosion. However, due to the odourless nature of LPG, ethyl mercaptan which has a unique odour, is added to alert the user of LPG incase a leak takes place. The product of crude oil refining fall into three main categories: The permanent gases, Methane and Ethane which remain gaseous regardless of pressure, unless refrigerated. Hydrocarbons having five or more carbon atoms per molecule. They are liquid or solid at atmospheric temperature and pressure and account for most of the crude oil refined. Propane, Butane and Isobutane, together with Propylene, Butylene and Isobutylene have three or four carbon atoms per molecule. All have the special property of becoming liquid at atmospheric temperature if moderately compressed and reverting to gases when the pressure is sufficiently reduced. C:UsersMr TDesktopIMAG0168.jpg Properties of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Vapour Pressure Vapour pressure is a measure of the volatility of the gas and where vapour exists in conjunction with the liquid phase is referred to as the saturation vapour pressure. At the boiling point it is equal to atmospheric pressure and increases as the temperature rises to the critical. Propane with its lower boiling point thus exerts a greater vapour pressure under identical conditions than butane. Knowledge of the vapour pressure of a gas is thus essential in order to be able to specify the design conditions for the pressurized system. It is also required to enable the gas offtake rates by natural vapourization to be calculated. In practical terms, systems are often specifically designed to be suitable for either butane or propane which thus precludes a butane system from being used for propane, but enables the propane system to be classed as dual purpose. G:DCIM100MEDIAIMAG0198.jpg Boiling Points of LPG The constituent gases found in a commercial LPG mixture all have very low boiling points and will thus normally exist in the vapour phase, under atmospheric conditions, unless they have been liquefied or refrigerated. Where the gases are held at a temperature at or below their boiling point, the vapour pressure will be equal to or less than atmospheric. This property has led to the development of large scale storage at marine terminals where the product is held in refrigerated form in what is essentially a non-pressurized system. Above ambient temperature, the gases exert an increasing vapour pressure, thus increasing the pressure required for liquefaction. This pressure continues to increase until the critical temperature is reached, (96.67oC for propane; 152.03oC for n-butane), above which temperature of the gases cease to exist in the liquid phase even if further pressure is applied. Latent Heat of LPG The latent heat of a liquid product is the quantity of heat absorbed to enable vapourization to occur. In the event of liquid LPG being allowed to vapourize naturally, the latent heat required is taken from itself and its immediate surroundings at the same time, causing a drop in temperature. The process is known as auto-refrigeration. Very low temperatures can be achieved with propane under such conditions; therefore in order to avoid operators receiving severe cold burns, protective clothing is required. Specific Volume, Relative Density LPGs exist as heavy gases approximately 1.5 2.0 times the density of air in vapour phase. They reduce in volume considerably on liquefaction (ratio of gas volume to liquid volume at 15.6oC/1016mbar is 233 for butane and 274 for propane) to exist as a clear liquid which is approximately half the weight of water (Propane 0.50 0.51, Butane 0.57 0.58). It can thus be seen that LPG vapours heavier than air will tend to cling to the ground seeking to enter trenches, drains and other low areas, which could make it take considerably longer time to disperse. Leaking liquid phase LPG will rapidly expand to around 250 times its own volume, therefore creating a greater risk than would occur with a similar sized vapour leakage. Where temperature conditions permit the existence of free liquid from a leakage, the product will float on any water present. This normally occurs with butane in freezing conditions and a typical scenario would occur during firefighting operations. Coefficient of Cubical Expansion of Liquid Liquid phase LPG expands considerably when its temperature increases. The coefficients of cubical expansion at 15oC are approximately 0.0016 per oC for propane and 0.0011 per oC for butane. These values are around 4 times the equivalent for fuel oil, 10 times that for water and 100 times that for steel. This high rate of expansion has to be taken into consideration when specifying the maximum quantity of LPG permitted to be filled into any pressure vessel, ie the filling ratio defined by codes of practice for different specification of LPGs under different ambient conditions. Because the filling ratio precautions taken to prevent the hydraulic filling of storage systems cannot be extended to the connecting liquid phase pipework, these parts of the system are protected by the provision of small hydrostatic relief valves situated in all areas where the liquid LPG can be trapped between closed valves. Limits of Flammability Gaseous fuels will only burn when mixed with air in proportions which lie between two well defined limits, known as the lower and upper limits of flammability. The lower limit being the smallest quantity of combustible gas which, when mixed with a given quantity of air (or O2) will support self-propagating flame. A leak of 1m3 of liquefied propane will produce 274m3 of propane vapour, which will cause immediate entrainment of air and progressive dilution of the concentration. When the upper limit of 10% is reached, the propane/air mixture becomes flammable (ie when the propane entrains, 274 10 = 2740m3 of air). The mixture only becomes flammable when the lower limit of 2% is reached (ie when the propane entrains 274 50 = 13,700m3) of air. Therefore, should a leak of propane occur, the propane/air mixture will be flammable and hence extremely dangerous until it has been diluted with more than 13,700m3 air per m3 of propane leakage. The following are the limits of flammability of LPG and some other fuels: Gas Lower Limit Upper Limit Commercial Propane 2.0 10.0 Commercial Butane 1.8 9.0 Natural Gas 5.0 15.0 Coal Gas 5.0 40.0 C:UsersMr TDesktopIMAG0189.jpg
Thursday, September 19, 2019
Airships :: essays research papers
Airships INDEX PROLOGUE 2 TYPES OF AIRSHIP 2 RIGID AIRSHIP 2 NONRIGID AIRSHIP 3 HISTORY OF RIGID AIRSPS 3 HISTORY OF NONRIGID AIRSHIPS 4 AIRSHIPS TODAY 5 HINDENBURG 6 HINDENBURG DISASTER 7 PROLOGUE An airship is a type of lighter-than-air aircraft with propulsion and steering systems, it is used to carry passengers and cargo. It obtains its buoyancy from the presence of a lighter-than-air gas such as hydrogen or helium. The first airship was developed by the French, called a ballon dirigible, it could be steered and could also be flown against the wind. TYPES OF AIRSHIP Two basic types of airship have been developed: the rigid airship, the shape of which is fixed by its internal structure; and the nonrigid blimp, which depends on the pressure created by a series of air diaphragms inside its gas space to maintain the shape of its fabric hull. Inventors sought to combine the best features of these models in a semirigid type, but it met with only limited success. Today only the nonrigid airship is used. Rigid Airship The rigid airship's structure resembled a cage that enclosed a series of balloons called gas cells. These cells were tailored to fit the cylindrical space and were secured in place by a netting that transmitted the lifting force of their gas to the structure. Each gas cell had two or more valves, which operated automatically to relieve pressure when the gas expanded with altitude, the valves could also be operated manually so that the pilot could release gas whenever desired. Also on board was a ballast system that used water as ballast. On the ground this ballast served to make the airship heavier than air. When part of it was released, the airship ascended to a cruising altitude where the engines supplied propulsion, and further ballast could be released to gain more altitude. As fuel was consumed, the airship became lighter and tended to climb. This was countered in hydrogen-inflated airships by simply releasing gas into the atmosphere. The method was uneconomical, however, with helium-inflated airships, and they were therefore equipped with ballast generators, apparatuses that condensed moisture out of the engines' exhaust gases to compensate for fuel that was consumed. But this ballast-generating equipment was expensive, complex, heavy, and difficult to maintain and was thus one of the most serious disadvantages of airships filled with the safer but more expensive helium. Nonrigid Airship In contrast to the rigid airship, the nonrigid blimp has no internal structure to maintain the shape of its hull envelope, which is made of two or three plies of cotton, nylon, or dacron impregnated with rubber for gas tightness. Inside the gas space of the hull are two or more air diaphragms called ballonets that
Wednesday, September 18, 2019
True love is so hard to find :: essays research papers
I want to capture and preserve our first meeting together in a bottle of love. The first time I saw you it was like standing next to a waterfall with beautiful shades of color. Your face was glowing as your eyes and smile showed words of love. "I knew I loved you before I met you." I felt as if seeing you for the first time were to see the beauty first hand, to be able to touch you and allow these tingling feelings to release. Before we met in person I knew that my love for you was deeper than any monument on earth. I fell in love with you from the inside out, getting to know your inner most thoughts and see the beauty locked inside. I looked into your eyes and felt a strong power of communication, there was no need for words. I felt lost in a world of thought, yet I was found with the strength of love. We exchanged those feelings of love with only our expressions. It was these expressions that created a strong tingling sensation throughout my body, a feeling that I had never in my life experienced. Sitting beside you engulfed my mind with thoughts and filled my body with further sensations. Each time you glanced at me, it was literally melting my heart; I was just overwhelmed by you. As my hand rested by my side you reached over and gently touched my hand. I can only describe that that moment as being struck by lightning. There was this jolt of electricity going through my entire body and I didn’t want it to stop. I closed my eyes and took a deep breath, accepting these wonderful feelings. Your hand caressed mine and my fingers gently slid along yours as I touched the back of your hand. As you held my hand and led me through a darkened patch of trees, I put myself in your hands and trusted your guidance. With gripped hands we settled upon a rock with the ocean below. The air was filled with silence except for the constant splashing of water against the rocks. We gently rubbed our faces against each other as our cheeks caressed. As our bodies
Tuesday, September 17, 2019
Psychodynamic vs Trait Theory Essay
Founded by Sigmund Freud, the Psychodynamic theory is known for ignoring â€Å"the trappings of science and instead focus[ing] on trying to get ‘inside the head’ of individuals in order to make sense of their relationships, experiences and how they see the world†(McLeod, S. A. , 2007). By contrast Trait theory is â€Å"the measurement of consistent patterns of habit in an individual’s behavior, thoughts, and emotions†(â€Å"Trait Theory†, 2013). While they are both methods of understanding human behavior the way that the different theories attempt to understand human behavior differ greatly. The Psychodynamic theory uses a put yourself in their shoes type of understanding while the Trait theory is pattern based and relies on data gathered by observing patterns. Understanding human behavior is something that is extremely complicated. The Trait theory is â€Å"based on the stability of traits over time, how they differ from other individuals, and how the[y] will influence human behavior†. These two theories are essentially a scientific approach versus an approach based on emotions, behaviors, and general, albeit trained, understanding of others emotions and behaviors. The basic theories developed by Freud and his successors are based on some basic assumptions. Our behavior and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives. Our behavior and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences. All behavior has a cause (usually unconscious), even slips of the tongue. Therefore all behavior is determined. Personality is made up of three parts (i. e. tripartite). The id, ego and super-ego. Behavior is motivated by two instinctual drives: Eros (the sex drive & life instinct) and Thanatos (the aggressive drive & death instinct). Both these drives come from the â€Å"id†. Parts of the unconscious mind (the id and superego) are in constant conflict with the conscious part of the mind (the ego). Personality is shaped as the drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in childhood (during psychosexual development). With an understanding of these assumptions Freud developed his theory of psychoanalysis, which is the basis for all psychiatric analysis, including the Trait and Psychodynamic theories. While they share their basic origin these traits differ significantly in the data that they analyze.
Monday, September 16, 2019
Monroe Doctrine Essay
Ever since its inception as a nation, the United States of America followed a foreign policy of isolationism right up to president Jefferson. This was become the European nations, which were at the helm of American affairs, were involved in several conflicts and turmoil, and American presidents realized the folly of involving such a young nation in war. Thus in 1793, when France declared war on Britain, Americans had divided opinions on the course of action. The federalists wanted to support Britain, and Hamilton, the secretary of treasury, rallied their cause. Secretary of state, who like many other Americans wanted to support France against Britain. However George Washington stuck by his policy of isolationism and avoided conflict. John Adams, and his successor Thomas Jefferson also adapted this policy. When this conflict between Britain and France increased, Jefferson placed an embargo on trade with both nations. While this action highlighted American neutrality, it was also harmful for the American economy, which led to the removal of the embargo. This step highlighted the folly of the policy of isolationism; making it obvious that United States had to make a stand, while continuing its policy of neutrality, not simply isolate itself from world affairs. Hence was a predecessor to the Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine was the fruition of early American foreign policy. It was delivered by president James Monroe, in his seventh annual address to the Congress on the 2nd of December 1823. It stated that United states would not tolerate any attempt by the European powers to colonize or interfere in the functioning of the western hemisphere, whilst the western hemisphere would in no way interfere in the European sphere of influence. It was meant to protect the newly independent Latin American states from European control. It was a defining moment in the separation of the old and new world, and became a long-standing American policy with minor variations, to be invoked by several American presidents. The Monroe doctrine, was delivered, and not read out in the congress unlike the other addresses. In this address Monroe gave the background for such a policy and the existing state of foreign relations, in which he mentioned negotiations with France, and dialogue with Russia on their commercial interests in the United States. He also talked about the Treaty of Ghent and the difference between US and Britain on the boundaries between the US and Canada. The president also announced to Congress a new round of negotiations with the British toward establishing a treaty that would define the exclusive and shared commercial interests of the United States and Great Britain as regarded states and territories bordering on lakes and rivers emptying into the St. Lawrence River. Thus he justified the need for such a policy and in his address included military strategies and provisions to safeguard it, like authorizing additional naval force for safeguarding their commercial interests in the Mediterranean Sea, Pacific Ocean, and the Atlantic coast. The key paragraph of the address, which summed up the foreign policy stated â€Å"We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere, but with the Governments who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any inter- position for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States†. The Monroe doctrine had its backgrounds in the foreign policy of earlier four presidents, as well as in the experiences of Monroe and Adams as diplomats. James Madison, during his presidency, continued to follow Jeffersonian foreign policy of prohibition of trade with both nations. In 1810, however, the Congress reversed itself, realizing its ill effects on the country’s economy authorizing the president to pursue trade with both countries, provided each accepted America’s policy of neutrality, or trade with only one, if that one accepted America’s view of neutral rights. Of the two, only France complied, hence Madison declared a state of â€Å"non-intercourse†with Great Britain. This led to the war of 1812 between America and Great Britain. The war, which initially proved to be disastrous for America, ended with the treaty of Ghent in 1814, and thus paved way for Monroe’s foreign policy to avoid future war, while protecting American rights. Monroe, who was inspired by Jefferson, and loyal to Jeffersonian policy, saw the need to avoid war, at the same time asserting America’s independence. John Quincy Adams, unlike his father deflected from the Federalist Party, and supported Jefferson in his placement of the embargo on trade with both nations. Thus both Adams and Monroe were inspired by Jeffersonian ideas, and saw the crucial need of making a stand as a newly independent nation, while avoiding the calamity of war. Monroe and Adams were faced with several problems regarding foreign policy, the foremost of which included renegotiating terms with Great Britain, on the treaty of Ghent and establishing new boundaries, reasserting rights that had been previously challenged. Later there arose a problem of Spanish claim over Florida, and Britain, it was suspected, was providing them help. This led to serious and long negotiations between America and Spain for the purchase of Florida, which ultimately led to the Adams- Onis treaty, Onis being the Spanish minister to America. This was considered one of Adams greatest successes as secretary of state, until he drafted the Monroe Doctrine, which influenced American foreign policy for generations to come. The doctrine grew out of several diplomatic problems. The first was the minor clash with Russia concerning the northwest coast of North America. In this quarrel, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams expressed the principle that the American continents were no longer to be considered as a field for colonization by European powers. That principle was incorporated verbatim in the presidential message. The other and more important part of the doctrine grew out of the fear that the group of European governments commonly called the Holy Alliance would seek to reduce the Latin American states that had recently gained independence from Spain to a colonial status once again. When France crossed the Pyrenees to help put down a rebellion against the Spanish monarch, Britain worried that this might lead to a joint French-Spanish expedition to retake the Latin American colonies for Spain, which would harm British economic interests in the area. The British foreign minister George Canning communicated with the American minister in London, Richard Rush, and suggested that a joint declaration opposing such a development would serve both their interests. Thus in 1823, the British foreign secretary, George Canning, through Richard Rush, proposed to Monroe that America should join powers with Britain for the joint protection of South American colonies from the Holy Alliance. There was once again a division of views on this matter. Adams believed that Britain had great self-interest behind such an offer. When Monroe consulted with Jefferson and Madison on this issue, Jefferson asked him to accept the proposal, however Madison, like Adams cautioned Monroe to be wary as it most definitely has British self-interest involved. According to Harry Ammon, Quincy Adams was convinced that Britain had ulterior motives in this offer. He believed that using this joint action as bait, Britain was hoping to discourage American intention of taking over Cuba, which Adams believed, was inevitable. After much debate in the cabinet, the decision was reached to reject this proposal, for it seemed that America had nothing to gain through this alliance, and President Monroe was anyway reluctant to do anything that might make the US appear subservient to Britain. However America still needed to protect the southern states from being restored to Spain via the holy alliance. Also if such an attack occurred, and Britain interceded and emerged victorious, Americans would be left at the mercy of the British once again, and the Southern territories would fall under British control. It was then decided that the southern countries needed to be protected not only from Spain, the Holy alliance, or Britain, but also from all non-American powers, and this is how the genius idea behind the foreign policy, to be called Monroe Doctrine emerged. This doctrine, though presented as the annual presidential address, was the brainchild of John Quincy Adams, the secretary of state, whose main motive behind this policy, according to Edward Renehan Jr. , was to deter colonialism. Even though the doctrine shaped future American foreign policy, the immediate impact of the Monroe Doctrine was mixed. It was successful to the extent that the continental powers did not attempt to revive the Spanish empire, but this was on account of the strength of the British Navy, not American, which was relatively limited. According to Alejandro Alvarez, the doctrine was simply a policy for the United States’ self defense, not for its aggression or for its isolationism. The Monroe doctrine also had not stated any disapproval towards Pan-Americanism or even cooperation with other European nations. The Monroe Doctrine was especially influential in the history of Latin American countries. Around the early 1800’s many Latin American areas, under the leadership of Simon Bolivar, had declared their independence from the controlling powers in Europe. These new countries lacked the military strength and experience to fight with foreign powers, however, when the Monroe doctrine was put into effect, they were safeguarded from these wars, and thus welcomed this policy. Over the years, the doctrine became the defining foreign policy of the United States, with continuous changes and variations, however, its two main ideas held true through the years. First, that the United States would not tolerate European powers further colonizing the American continents or interfering in its affairs. And second, that the United States would not interfere in existing European colonies or in Europe itself. According to Edward Renehan Jr. , the Monroe Doctrine had a significant impact, not only in the development of Foreign policy, but also on American history, which would have been significantly different, if not for this doctrine. In essence, ‘Without its existence Latin America would have been severely regionalized by European powers to serve their colonial interests, and a range of European powers, not just Spain but also Holland, Germany, France, and Great Britainâ€â€would have gained a major foothold, introducing not only new lines to the map, but also new languages and cultures’. The coinage of the term ‘Monroe doctrine’ first came from President James K. Polk in 1845, when he successfully invoked this doctrine to thwart of French and British efforts against annexation of Texas, as also British threats in Oregon and California. He also expanded the doctrine to include his belief of ‘manifest destiny’. A concept, which along with the Monroe Doctrine came to be referred as Polk Doctrine. Monroe Doctrine greatly changed the American foreign policy, by shifting the emphasis from neutrality, to respect towards America, as a newly independent nation. With the ending of the war between European nations, and the restoration of peace, the American foreign policy was liberated from its earlier inhibitions, which had existed ever since Washington’s presidency. Monroe seized the opportunity to let matters of neutral rights of America dissolve in the background, while bringing to the forefront the concept of the United States as the most powerful in the Americas, and a country which was a serious and powerful republic, which no longer needed the aid or patronage of foreign nations to achieve its diplomatic aims. The Monroe Doctrine was significant in defining and paving the way for American foreign policy for centuries. It was initially drafted simply as a means of asserting America as a power as well as for American self defense, and highlighting it as an independent nation. Its true brilliance was realized only decades later when it was recalled time and again by several Presidents of the United States. It was the first act that grew to see America as a superpower in the world. This simple assertion of non-interference separated the old world from the new world, thus making the United States the biggest power in the Western Hemisphere. It was the first decisive step in the foreign policy of America after Jefferson’s embargo on trade, and it greatly changed as well as shaped foreign policy as the United States for the first time asserted itself as a power without the support or patronage of another nation.
Sunday, September 15, 2019
Outline the key theoretical claims of restorative justice and critically evaluate its advantages and disadvantages as applied to contemporary punishment practices in the UK.
Abstract Restorative justice describes various processes designed to correct the harm that the criminal inflicts on it’s victims and communities (Braithwaite,1999). It requires all parties; victims, offenders and communities, to establish ways of repairing the harm of crime and prevent it from happening again (Strickland, 2004, Cornwell, 2009). Although such practices may be seen as a more equitable and humane form of justice, it has been criticised for extending the criminal justice system (net-widening) (Garland, 2001) and for it’s propensity to ‘privatise’ the justice estate, by its use of informal and less accountable forms of, what Foucault refers to as ‘governmentality’ (Foucault, 1975, Pavlich, 2013). However, research shows that restorative justice has been successful in reducing reoffending rates and more significantly, giving a voice to the victims of crime, previously ignored by the prevailing criminal justice system. Introduction Restorative justice describes various processes designed to correct the harm that the criminal inflicts on it’s victims and communities (Braithwaite,1999). It requires all parties; victims, offenders and communities, to establish ways of repairing the harm of crime and prevent it from happening again (Strickland, 2004, Cornwell, 2009). This paper will explore the conceptual underpinnings of the restorative approach that will examine it’s development within the theoretical and practical framework of contemporary punishment practices. It will argue that those who advocate restorative justice claim that traditional ways of responding to harm tend to neglect the needs of victims and communities (Braithwaite, 1999). Van Ness & Strong (2010) contend that the prevailing policies and practices of the criminal justice system focus entirely on the offender as law breaker, that only address legal guilt and punishment (Stohr et al,2012). Further, over the last three decades, within the context of the rise of neo-liberal populism, that has seen decline of the rehabilitative ideal, restorative justice practices have the potential to mitigate the worst excesses of punitive punishments (Garland, 2001). However, the theoretical underpinnings of restorative justice, as this paper will show, has been attacked in various ways, due, in part, to its propensity to either be seen as undermining the impartiality of the criminal justice system, or as yet another form of what Foucault (1975) describes as ‘governmentality’. From this perspective, restorative justice is seen as an informal process that results in a net-widening of state control (Garland, 2001, Pavlich, 2013). This, in turn, has generated a significant ideological debate over the future of criminal justice (Johnstone & Van Ness, 2007). Proponents of restorative justice, however, argue that within the prevailing punitive regime, the increase in custodial sentences has generated a penal crisis that may be mitigated by the use of restorative approaches (Cavadino & Dignan, 2006). Restorative justice may therefore be seen as a significant and pragmatic means of lowering the rate of recidivism and bringing about a more humane and equitable justice (Sim, 2008, Cornwell, 2009). The Demise of the Rehabilitative Ideal Since the eighteenth century, idea’s surrounding state punishment have led to a mixture of approaches that prevail today (Stohr et al, 2012). Clarkson, 2005, suggests that these theories in turn have generated continual discourse surrounding the moral justifications for punishment, which are; retributivism, deterrence, rehabilitation and incapacitation. Sim (2009), citing Foucault, argues that although the prevailing literature on the history of the criminal justice system has placed an emphasis on the shifts and discontinuities in the apparatus of punishment, such as the move from retributive punishment toward a more progressive rehabilitative approach, since the mid 1970s punishment has been underpinned and legitimated by a political and populist hostility to offenders (ibid, Garland 2001, Cornwell, 2009). Garland (2001) argues that the last three decades has seen a shift away from the assumptions and ideologies that shaped crime control for most of the twentieth century. To day’s practices of policing and penal sanctions, Garland argues, pursue new objectives in a move away from the penal welfarism (rehabilitation) that shaped the 1890s?1970s approach of policy makers, academics and practitioners. Cornwell (2009) argues that although the rehabilitative model of punishment was seen as a progressive approach in the middle years of the last century, when it was widely accepted that the provision of ‘treatment and training’ would change the patterns of offending behaviour, the ideology failed to work out in practice (Garland, 2001). In turn, there became a disenchantment with the rehabilitative approach, and the ‘Nothing Works’ scenario became an accepted belief, given the reality of prison custody (Martinson, 1974). Muncie (2005) claims that the 1970s neo-liberal shift in political ideology saw the rehabilitative welfare model based on meeting individual needs, regress back towards a ‘justice model’ (retributi ve), that is more concerned with the offence than the offender. From the 1990s, Muncie argues, ‘justice’ has moved away from due process and rights to an authoritarian form of crime control. The Prison Crisis Cornwell (2009) claims that the effect of the ‘justice model’ on the prison population cannot be overstated (Sim, 2008). In England and Wales in 1990 the average daily prison population stood at around 46,000, by 1998 this figure increased to over 65,000, by 2009 the number rose to 82,586 (ibid). Further, the findings in the 2007 Commission on Prison’s suggest that a ‘crisis’ now defines the UK penal system (The Howard League, 2007). Despite a 42,000 decline in reported crime since 1995, the Commission argue, the prison population has soared to a high of 84,000 in 2008, more than doubling since 1992. Cornwell (2009) claims that at present the costs of keeping an offender in prison stands at around ?40,000 per year, where the estimated cost of building new prisons to accommodate the rise of the prison population will take huge resources of public money. Prison has therefore become the defining tool of the punishment process, where the United Kingdom (U K) now imprisons more of its population than any other country in Western Europe (ibid: p.6). A History of Restorative Justice In response to the prison crisis, experimentation in the 1990s began to see various forms of restorative justice models in order to mitigate retributive punishment and as a means of re-introducing a greater emphasis on the rehabilitation ideal (Muncie, 2005). The arguments for restorative forms of justice, Cornwell (2009) claims, are not just about cost and sustainability on national resources, but more significantly, the notion of the type of unjust society the United Kingdom (UK) is likely to become unless this surge in punitive sanctions is not abated (ibid, Sim, 2009). Cornwell (2009) suggests that the main strength of the restorative justice model is that it is ‘practitioner led’, deriving from the practical experience of correctional officials and academics who have a comprehensive understanding of the penal system. From a ‘Nothing Works’ (Martinson, 1974) to a ‘What Works’ experience, the emphasis of restorative justice has been to identi fy a more humane, equitable and practical means of justice that goes beyond the needs of the offender (rehabilitative goal) toward addressing the victims and their communities (Cornwell, 2009). Restorative Justice ? Theory and Practice Howard Zehr (2002), envisioned restorative justice as addressing the victim’s needs or harm that holds offenders accountable to put right the harm that involves the victims, offenders and their communities (Zehr, 2002). The first focus is on holding the offender accountable for harm, the second is the requirement that in order to reintegrate into society, offenders must do something significant to repair the harm. Third, there should be a process through which victims, offenders and communities have a legitimate stake in the outcomes of justice (Cornwell, 2009.p:45). In this way, Zehr (2002) redefines or redirects the harm of crime away from its definition of a violation of the state, toward a violation of one person by another. At the same time, the focus of establishing blame or guilt shifts toward a focus on problem solving and obligations. As a result, communities and not the state become the central facilitators in repairing and restoring harm (ibid). Although restorative justice has received wide recognition across many western countries together with the endorsement of the Council of Europe in 1999, progress toward the implementation of restorative justice principles into mainstream criminal justice practices is slow (Cornwell, 2009). Further, restorative justice, both in theory and practice continues to generate a substantial and contentious debate (Morris, 2002). Restorative Justice ? A Critique Acorn (2005) argues that ‘justice’ has traditionally symbolised the scales of impartiality on the one hand, and the sword of power, on the other. Justice is thereby possible when a neutral judge calculates a fair balance of accounts to make decisions that are backed by state power. Restorative justice, by its practice of informal dispute resolutions, can be seen as a call to a return of a ‘privatised’ form of justice (ibid, Strang & Braithwaite, 2002). This criticism is qualified by the propensity of restorative justice advocates (Braithwaite, 1989) that critique punitive justice responses and thereby view the power of the state as harmful. This in turn, at least theoretically, erodes state power and state created crime categories, thereby threatening to create a ‘privatised’ justice process (Strang & Braithwaite, 2002). Within this process, Strang & Braithwaite (2002) argue, restorative justice cannot be seen to ‘legitimately’ deal with crimes. Acorn (2004) suggests that unlike the prevailing criminal justice system, the desire to punish (retribution) is replaced by a version of justice that is centred on specifically nuanced concepts of harm, obligation, need, re-integration and forgiveness. Such values guide Family Group Conferences, Community Mediation, Victim-Offender Commissions and various forms of tribunals (Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)) (MacLaughlin et al, 2003). Family Group Conferences is a prominent practice in restorative justice, that includes community members (paid or unpaid) to ‘hear’ disputes and help parties to resolve conflicts. However, rather than a diversion from the criminal justice system, such conferences involve offenders already convicted (Acorn, 2004). Garland (2001) views this arrangement a form of ‘net-widening’, where informal justice becomes part of the social landscape that encompasses a widening and ever expanding form of crime control (ibid) . Although restorative justice advocates argue that informal justice creates domains of freedom that empower victims, offenders and communities, opponents claim that restorative justice represents another pernicious way in which community mediation expands state control, while claiming to do precisely the opposite (Acorn, 2004, Garland, 2001, Pavlich, 2013). Restorative justice proponents are clear in their critique of the criminal justice system that is seen to not represent victims or their communities, where state officials, such as the police, lawyers and judges, are impartial, and thereby have no direct understanding of those affected by criminal offenses (Pavlich, 2013). Here, Pavlich refers to Foucault’s concept of ‘governmentality’, where the state subtly arranges the background settings to produce subjects who think and act in ways that do not require direct coercion, in what Foucault terms the ‘conduct of conduct’ (Pavlich, 2013, Foucault, 1975). In this way, Foucault argues, self governed subjects are produced when they buy into the logic and formulated identities of a given governmentality (Foucault, 1975). Garland and Sparks (2000) claim that restorative justice, as a form of govermentality has, in part, come about by the increased attention, over the last twenty-five years, toward the rights of the ‘victim’. Here, Garland (2001) argues that the last two decades has seen the rise of a distinctly populist current in penal politics that no longer relies on the evidence of the experts and professional elites. Whereas a few decades ago public opinion functioned as an occasional restraint on policy initiatives, it now operates as a privileged source. Within this context, Garland argues, victims have attained an unprecedented array of ‘rights’ within the criminal justice system, ranging from; ‘the right to make victim impact statements’, the right to be consulted in prosecutions, sentencing and parole together with notifications of offenders post release movements and the right to receive compensation. Further, the right to receive service provision ent ails the use of Victim Support agencies who help people address their feelings and offer practical help and assistance, mitigating the negative impact of crime (Reeves and Mulley, 2000). Wright (2000) suggests that while such developments may be seen as a triumph for victim support movements, these reforms do not fundamentally alter the structural position of victims. This, Wright explains, is because the punitive structural system remains intact whereby the victim’s interests will necessarily remain secondary to the wider public interest, represented by the crown (Wright, 2000). It can be argued that while critics may be seen as correct in their perception of restorative justice as a form of governmentality or net-widening by the state, the attack may be seen as premature, given the early stages of its development (Cornwell, 2009). Cornwell argues that critics have not given restorative justice enough time to develop and potentially emerge as a stand alone resolution to the problem of crime and its repercussions for the victims, offenders and their communities (ibid). Restorative justice programmes are still at an embryonic stage, where they are attracting critique, mainly due to their attachment to the Criminal Justice System (Cornwell, 2009, Morris, 2002, Ministry of Justice, 2012). Cornwell (2009) also addresses the argument that the restorative approach places too much emphasis on the status it affords to the victims of crime. In reality, Cornwell suggests, that status is very much based on political rhetoric rather than actual reform. The publication of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 that anticipated an advance in restorative and reparative measures into the criminal justice system, in reality bought in a much more punitive provision. Restorative measures under the Act are initiated on the basis of a ‘mix and match’ arrangement for ‘custody plus minus’. Here, (Garrielides, 2003) points out that restorative justice has therefore become somewhat removed from its underlying theory (Garrielides, 2003). Put simply, the restorative approach has been cherry picked to support other punitive initiatives, leaving its central tenets at the margins of the criminal justice system (Cornwell, 2009). Restorative Justice – Does it Work? Since the 1990s a number of restorative justice trial schemes began to take place, in order to measure success in terms of re-offending and victim satisfaction. According to a Ministry of Justice Report (Shapland et al, 2008), measuring the success of restorative justice against criminal justice control groups, it was found that offenders who took part in restorative justice schemes committed statistically significantly fewer offences (in terms of reconvictions) in the subsequent two years than offenders in the control group. Further, although restorative justice has been generally reported to be more successful within youth justice, this research showed no demographic differences, for example; in age, ethnicity, gender or offence type. The report also showed that eighty-five percent of victims were happy with the process (ibid). These results are reflected in various case studies. Published by the Restorative Justice Council (2013) the following gives an example of the positive impa ct that restorative justice can have on the victim, the offender and communities: Arrested in February last year, Jason Reed was sentenced to five years in prison after admitting to more than fifty other burglaries. During the criminal justice process, Jason expressed his wish to start afresh and make amends, so he was referred to the post-conviction restorative justice unit. After a full assessment to ensure his case was suitable for restorative justice measures, three conferences took place between Jason and five of his victims. The victims had different motivations for taking part and they were able to express their upset and anger directly to the offender. Jason agreed to pay back an agreed amount of compensation and the victims showed some acceptance and forgiveness (Restorative Justice Council, 2013). Conclusion Overall, this paper has argued that restorative justice may be seen as an attempt to address the disillusion within the criminal justice system in the 1970s that had conceded that ‘Nothing Works’. The demise of the rehabilitative ideal (Garland, 2001), against the backdrop of political shifts toward a neo-liberal ideology, bought about a more punitive, retributive stance toward punishment and offending (Sim, 2008). As a result, the rise in prison populations has bought about a penal crisis. In response, new initiatives in restorative justice began to develop, emerging as a more equitable, humane form of punishment (Cornwell, 2009). The advantages of the restorative approach cannot be overstated, as this paper shows, rather than the state focusing on the offender (as is the case with the prevailing criminal justice system), restorative justice seeks to address the needs of the victim and community participation (Zehr, 2002). In practical terms, there appears to be some su ccess in terms of re-offending and victim satisfaction (Ministry of Justice, 2008). Despite the criticisms (Garland, 2001), it can be argued that restorative justice demonstrates an opportunity and potential to mitigate the worst excesses of the criminal justice system and bring about a more equitable and humane approach (Cornwell, 2009). Word count: 2654 Bibliography Acorn, A (2004) Compulsory Compassion: A Critique of Restorative Justice. Vol 14, No.6 (June 2004) pp. 446-448. University of British Columbia Press Bottoms, A, Gelsthorpe, S Rex, S (2013) Community Penalties: Change & Challenges. 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